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Endosomes and vesicles

Not one body but a route. The sorting station changes its marker protein rather than handing cargo to a different organelle, and the coat at the start of the route is not always a round cage.

16 pictures and 208 papers. Its organelle page: Endosomes and vesicles.

Gallery

Panel D (EEA1): early endosome marker as magenta puncta, inset with arrowheads. composite of 14 immunofluorescence panels, mouse choroid plexus epithelial cells; magenta channel is the named organelle marker

Ono, Shishido, Yamagishi et al 2026, The FEBS Journal · CC BY 4.0

Enlargement and altered distribution of early endosomes in SORL1 p.Y1816C and KO neurons and organoids. (A) Representative immunofluorescence images showing EEA1-positive early endosomes in WT, SORLA KO, and KI 2D neurons at day 20 and 3D cerebral organoids at day 60; (B) Size distribution of EEA1+ puncta in 2D neurons, showing the proportion of standard-sized (<=0.5 um2) and enlarged (>0.5 um2) EEA1-positive endosomes across genotypes.

Lep, Plesingrova, Sedmik et al 2026, Alzheimer's and Dementia · CC BY 4.0

STX12 depletion disrupts early endocytic trafficking in GSCs. Confocal immunofluorescence showing colocalization of STX12 (green) with the early endosome marker EEA1 (red) in GSCs. Nuclear staining with DAPI is shown in blue. Corresponding higher-magnification insets are shown below. Scale bars: 10 um.

Maghe, Barbach, Andre-Gregoire et al 2026, Traffic (Copenhagen, Denmark) · CC BY 4.0

Localization of cell-cell junction components during de novo epithelial polarization and generation of Rab11a-KO MDCK cell lines. (A, B) Single MDCK cells after 12 hr of culture in Matrigel. Immunostaining signals of the indicated markers are shown: centrosome marker gamma-tubulin, polarity protein Par3, acetyl-tubulin, actin, E-cadherin (E-cad), ZO-1, and DAPI. Single confocal sections through the middle of cysts are displayed.

Wang, Lin, Tang et al 2026, eLife · CC BY 4.0

NoxO1 and Erbin cooperatively regulate endosomal pathways in Hek293 cells. Analyses of endosomal markers in resting cells with or without Erbin knock out (Erbin KO) overexpressing an empty vector or NoxO1 (OE): Early endosome antigen 1 (EEA1) for early endosomes, n = 6; Ras-related protein 11 (Rab11) for recycling endosomes, n = 6; Ras-related protein 7 (Rab7) for late endosomes, n = 3; Lysosome a

Hebchen, Herwig, Schader et al 2026, Redox Biology · CC BY 4.0

Co-localization dynamics of EGF-QDs with specific endocytic markers in cancer cell lines in control conditions and after BafA1 pretreatment. (A) Confocal images of HeLa cells that were incubated with EGF-QDs (red). The cells were then fixed and immunostained with an anti-EEA1, anti-Rab7, anti-CD63, and anti-Lamp1 antibodies (green). Each image is a maximum intensity projection of a Z-stack onto a single image, representative of the corresponding time point in at least three independent experiments. The white lines in the images delineate the boundaries of the cells and nuclei according to differential interference contrast. Scale bars: 10 μm. (B, C) Manders' coefficients (M1) of co-localization between EGF-QDs and specific endocytic markers in HeLa cells (B) and A549 cells (C).

Salova, Belyaeva, Litvinov et al 2025, International Journal of Molecular Sciences · CC BY 4.0

Rabex5 recruitment to endosomes depends on ubiquitin binding in mammalian cells. (A) Enlarged Rab5 (magenta) early endosomes become smaller when Rabex5 carries mutations in its ubiquitin binding site. Mutated Rabex5 (green) is predominantly cytoplasmic. Similar effects can be seen in a CCZ1 KO background where Rab conversion is blocked.

Ott, Desai, Solinger et al 2025, The EMBO Journal · CC BY 4.0

STX12 depletion disrupts early endocytic trafficking in GSCs. (C) Confocal imaging of EEA1 (red), RAB5 (green), and GM130 (green) in control and STX12-depleted cells, in sic or siSTX12-transfected cells. Nuclear staining with DAPI is shown in blue. Corresponding higher-magnification insets with inverted grayscale are shown on the right. Scale bars: 10 um.

Maghe, Barbach, Andre-Gregoire et al 2026, Traffic · CC BY 4.0

SNX6-SNX2 are distributed with DIO3 during endocytosis. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopy of ES-2 cells under 100 µM MDC for 3 h, in DMSO and MDC conditions: DIO3 (red) with (D) EEA1 (far red, shown in cyan) and (E) RAB7 (green). Scale bars: 20 μm.

Maman-Shinar, Vanmak, Bern et al 2026, Cellular Oncology · CC BY 4.0

Enlargement and altered distribution of early endosomes in SORL1 p.Y1816C and KO neurons and organoids. (A) Representative immunofluorescence images showing EEA1-positive early endosomes in WT, SORLA KO, and KI 2D neurons at day 20 and 3D cerebral organoids at day 60;

Lep, Plesingrova, Sedmik et al 2026, Alzheimer's & Dementia · CC BY 4.0

Enlargement and altered distribution of early endosomes in SORL1 p.Y1816C and KO neurons and organoids. (D) Representative TEMs of EL and ED endosomes in WT, KI, and KO neurons;

Lep, Plesingrova, Sedmik et al 2026, Alzheimer's & Dementia · CC BY 4.0

Dynamics of recycling endosomes (REs) in GBF1 M832L cells. a , b Localization of REs in wild-type ( a ) and GBF1 M832L cells ( b ) before (left) and 30 min after BFA administration (right). Magnified black-and-white single-channel images of the insets are shown in the right panels. The images show Ruby::GM130 in red, GalT::iRFP713 in blue, and NeonGreen::Rab11a in green.

Takiguchi, Shek, Sasaki et al 2026, Nature Communications · CC BY 4.0

Cryo-electron tomography observation of hemifused vesicles at the leading edge of cultured cells. b Representative cryo-electron tomogram slice of the border of a COS-7 cell highlighting cytoskeletal components, endosome-like vesicles (En), a clathrin-coated vesicle (CV), and a hemifusome (HF). A single bilayer or hemifusion diaphragm separates the hemifused vesicles. The larger vesicle has a fine granular content, and the smaller hemifused vesicle has a smooth translucent lumen (*). The arrowhead points to the proteolipid particle and arrow points to the nanodroplet at the rim of the hemifusion diaphragm (representative from at least 10 tomograms). Scale bar: 100 nm.

Tavakoli, Hu, Ebrahim et al 2025, Nature Communications · CC BY 4.0

Ultrastructural evidence of exosome release from myoblast cells following shockwave treatment. Representative EM micrographs illustrating the progression of exosome secretion from a C2C12 cell following SW treatment. A multivesicular body (MVB) is observed as a membranous structure in close proximity to the plasma membrane (PM), characterized by a single limiting membrane enclosing exosomes that appear as intraluminal vesicles (ILVs, arrows) (A). MVB migrates and fuses with the plasma membrane (B), leading to the exocytic release of exosomes into the extracellular space (C). The fusion profile between the MVB and the plasma membrane can be observed in proximity to the released exosomes (D). M: mitochondrion. Scale bar: A--D = 175 nm; B--C = 350 nm. (mouse (C2C12 myoblast, shockwave-treated); FIGURE 2, full figure (panels A-D; MVB exocytosis sequence).)

Ryskalin, Fulceri, Germelli et al 2026, The FASEB Journal · CC BY 4.0

HK2 cells were transiently transfected with plasmids carrying the indicated EGFP-WIPI2 variants with mCherry-RAB5 or RFP-RAB4. (human (HK2 kidney); Figure 4 -- figure supplement 2, panels A, B (confocal fluorescence; micrograph section rows 30-943 of figure).)

De Leo, Mayer, Bottanelli et al 2026, eLife · CC BY 4.0

Confocal immunofluorescence showing EEA1-positive early endosomes clustered near the Golgi apparatus in human cells, illustrating the spatial relationship between the sorting endosome compartment and the trans-Golgi network under control conditions. (Homo sapiens (HeLa or human cell line).)

Simon G 2026, Journal of cell science · CC BY 4.0

Papers

  1. Zhao H, Zhao J, Zhou D, Lei Y, Liu Z, Chen J, et al. Steatotic liver-derived extracellular vesicles deliver ACSL4 to potentiate hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury by orchestrating a ferroptosis-mitochondrial apoptosis cascade. Genes Dis. 2027;14:102005. PMID: 42780392.
  2. Yang Z, Lin Q, Li H, Xiao S, Ma H, Lin J, et al. From pathogenic to reparative: Context-Dependent function of extracellular vesicles in osteoarthritis. Bioact Mater. 2027;68:397-417. PMID: 42741701.
  3. Woudstra AL, Holtman L, van Vliet EA. Microglia-derived extracellular vesicle content as a biomarker for early detection of Alzheimer's disease. Transl Neurodegener. 2026;15:51. PMID: 42816862.
  4. Kang SJ, Baek G, Ju S, Kim G, Gwak S, Rhee WJ. Dual-Targeted M1 Macrophage Extracellular Vesicles Reprogram the Tumor Microenvironment and Enhance Natural Killer Cell Immunotherapy in Breast Cancer. J Extracell Vesicles. 2026;15:e70379. PMID: 42814771.
  5. Luo C, Li Z, Yi F, Wen P, Zou T, Jiang S, et al. The role of Fusobacterium nucleatum outer membrane vesicles in disease and related mechanisms: a scoping review of pathogenesis and potential therapeutic applications. J Oral Microbiol. 2026;18:2717775. PMID: 42807451.
  6. Huang K, Liu HZ, Liu Y, Lyu JY, Zhang QY, Feng ZY, et al. Hybrid exosomal nanomotors convert pathological ROS into transport-driving cues to enhance cartilage accumulation in osteoarthritis. Nat Commun. 2026;17:10310. PMID: 42805962.
  7. Xie A, Wu S, Zeng W, Zhang M, Wang J, Shi L, et al. Extracellular vesicles in cancer-associated cachexia: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic perspectives. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2026;14:1929088. PMID: 42798761.
  8. Jacob S, Varkey NR, Boddu SHS, Shah JN, Abdi IM, Rao R. Extracellular Vesicles and Plant-Derived Vesicles in Cancer: From Mechanisms to Clinical Translation. Pharmaceutics. 2026;18:1098. PMID: 42797273.
  9. Fan RP, Gou LP, Ma JF, Yang JM, Wood JI, Zhang RN, et al. Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Local and Systemic Communication in Metabolic Diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:8287. PMID: 42794714.
  10. Zhang J, Wei X, Han N. Reprogramming the Aging Type H Vascular Niche via Myeloid Angiogenic Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Mechanisms, Engineering Strategies, and Translational Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:8202. PMID: 42794630.
  11. Mateos-Ramírez FAG, Hernández-Ortega LD, Gurrola-Díaz CM, Gasca-Lozano LE, Sánchez-Orozco LV, Salazar-Montes AM. Biology and Therapeutic Potential of Exosomes, Targeted Drug Delivery. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:8145. PMID: 42794575.
  12. Sawant H, Sun B, Li Y, Zhu C, Meyer R, Sodhi K, et al. Hyperglycemic Adipocyte-Derived Exosomes Cause Oxidative Stress and Lipid Peroxidation in Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells. Curr Issues Mol Biol. 2026;48:896. PMID: 42793252.
  13. Lee Y, Wang Y, Graham P, Beretov J, Ni J. Extracellular vesicles in breast cancer metastasis: functional insights and advances in single-EV analysis. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2026;45:73. PMID: 42782537.
  14. Angelini S, Sanz Molina JM, Castaldo F, Naumovski N, Passaro A, Sergi D. Adipose tissue ceramides: emerging lipid components of extracellular vesicles and their influence on metabolic dysregulation. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2026;17:1919367. PMID: 42781137.
  15. Firouzi M, Akomea A, Jamei MH, Harris GM, Kim D. Immune cell-derived exosomes in cancer: double-edged mechanisms of antitumor immunity and tumor progression. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1937923. PMID: 42769963.
  16. Bai S, Duan Y, Yao T, Shi Y, Zhang X, Ma X, et al. Gastric Cancer-Derived Exosomes Activate Mast Cells via the SCF/c-KIT Pathway to Drive Angiogenesis and Metastasis. Oncol Res. 2026;34:27. PMID: 42769778.
  17. Zhang L, Yang X, Yu Y, Yang L. Mammalian cell-derived extracellular vesicles remodel the immune-repair microenvironment in osteoarthritis: from pathological signal transmission to regenerative therapy. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1936617. PMID: 42756019.
  18. Fretes A, Lara B, Calo G, Rojas Campión I, Materazzi L, Sabbione F, et al. Porphyromonas gingivalis outer membrane vesicles induce an activated but permissive neutrophil phenotype. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1896511. PMID: 42755492.
  19. Wang Y, Wu Q, Lin H, Jiang X, Wang Z, Yang C, et al. Oxylipins-Omics Combine With Single-Molecule Analysis Identifies 13(S)-HODE Positive Extracellular Vesicles as a Diagnostic Biomarker for AFP-Negative Hepatocellular Carcinoma. J Extracell Vesicles. 2026;15:e70368. PMID: 42755134.
  20. Fu YQ, Tang TT, Chen SJ, Wang B, Liu BC. Extracellular vesicles mediate immune regulation in acute kidney injury. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1952566. PMID: 42746376.
  21. Shen Y, Tai Y, Liu X, Li Y, Zhao Z, Jin X, et al. Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Macrophage Polarization in Sepsis-Induced Acute Lung Injury: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities. Cells. 2026;15:1574. PMID: 42738868.
  22. Ma H, Xie Z, Cai Y, Li F, Wu J, Zheng Y. Extracellular vesicles for abdominal aortic aneurysm: mechanisms, therapeutic potential, and translational challenges. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2026;251:11246. PMID: 42729355.
  23. Feilen LP, Sach LK, Tranchant EE, Lalic MR, Havelund JF, Jeria Cerda CM, et al. Integrative structural analysis of human endosomal NHE6 reveals a lipid-associated gate and disordered C-terminus. Nat Commun. 2026;17:9663. PMID: 42716947.
  24. Li Y, Zheng F, Bai Y, Yu Y, Zhang R, Feng Q, et al. Application of stem cell-derived exosomes in skin wound healing: mechanisms, prospects, and challenges. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1846916. PMID: 42713281.
  25. Yue H, Alhaskawi A, Ezzi SHA, Zhou J. Biologic and regenerative strategies for osteoarthritis: advances in MSC, exosome, and PRP based therapies. Front Pharmacol. 2026;17:1897284. PMID: 42694831.
  26. Ma Y, Jiang WN, Zhou T, Sun B, Gong CJ, Guan L, et al. Extracellular vesicles at the immune-metabolic crossroads of Hashimoto's thyroiditis and diabetes mellitus. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1914528. PMID: 42688475.
  27. Piao L, Wang H, Zhang Q, Li J, Sun H, Sun R, et al. Emerging molecular mechanisms of the ECM-exosome growth-plate axis in idiopathic short stature. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2026;14:1898879. PMID: 42682878.
  28. Babatunde KA, Ngara M, Martinez Murillo P, Subramanian B, Hopke A, Lucchesi S, et al. Plasmodium falciparum subverts neutrophil function via host miR-451a loaded extracellular vesicles driving bacterial and fungal superinfection susceptibility. PLoS Pathog. 2026;22:e1014533. PMID: 42678991.
  29. Ghesmati Z, Rashid M, Fayezi S, Alizadeh E, Darabi M. Brown and white adipocyte like cells derived exosomes differentially regulate stemness, hormone secretion, apoptosis, and lipid metabolism in model cells. PLoS One. 2026;21:e0355955. PMID: 42678968.
  30. Chen A, Zhu M. Roles of exosome-mediated macrophage polarization in the hepatocellular carcinoma progression. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1907211. PMID: 42676581.
  31. Wöhler A, Willms AG, Scholz A, Kühler N, Schwab R, Müller P, et al. Beyond injury severity: monocyte-associated small extracellular vesicles distinguish respiratory-support trajectories following thoracic trauma. BMC Pulm Med. 2026;26:383. PMID: 42669654.
  32. Patitz JJ, Nieuwenhuizen NE, Solomatina A, Bachelot Y, Krüger T, Svensson CM, et al. Host-to-Pathogen Transfer of Neutrophil Components via Extracellular Vesicles Shields Candida albicans From Immune Attack in Human Blood. J Extracell Vesicles. 2026;15:e70363. PMID: 42667671.
  33. Shefer A, Ivanova E, Chernyshova A, Tamkovich S. Exosome-Associated Proteins as Mediators and Biomarkers of Ovarian Cancer Dissemination. Biomolecules. 2026;16:1150. PMID: 42650816.
  34. Gu Y, Gu C, Pan R, Liu B. Emerging Roles of Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Transfer of Mitochondrial and Mitochondrial Components in Cancer. Cells. 2026;15:1502. PMID: 42645228.
  35. Gebeyehu GM, Zjalic M, Bognár R, Farkas B, Rashidiani S, Makkai G, et al. Sepsis-Induced Exosomal Transfer of MAFB mRNA Reprograms Hepatocytes via a miR-155-Jarid2-H3F3A Epigenetic Cascade. Cells. 2026;15:1481. PMID: 42645209.
  36. Qi Y, Li X, Zhou J, Lü C, Hao Z, Zeng L. Advances in understanding exosome-mediated regulation of macrophage function. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1813268. PMID: 42639376.
  37. Alkaabi A, Nasrallah D, Giordo R, Nasrallah GK, Zayed H, Pintus G. Conditioned Media-Derived Tumor Extracellular Vesicles: Bridging Molecular Insights and Therapeutic Applications in Oncology. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol. 2026;18:e70077. PMID: 42622361.
  38. Herrera VLM, Mahdaviani K, Choi J, Chen SH, Gunn E, Stadnicki K, et al. Prospective subtyping identifies an association between high pretreatment levels of DEspR+ neutrophil extracellular trap-forming neutrophils and microvesicles during sterile inflammation with poor survival in patients with metastatic non-small cell lung cancer receiving first-line combination chemo-immunotherapy. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1849858. PMID: 42620556.
  39. Vasyle E, Januskevicius A, Rimkunas A, Palacionyte J, Miliauskas S, Malakauskas K. Distinct miRNA expression patterns in circulating eosinophil subtypes and their subtype-derived exosomes in allergic asthma. Inflamm Res. 2026;75:192. PMID: 42608483.
  40. Ryskalin L, Fulceri F, Germelli L, D'Agostino MC, Soldani P, Da Pozzo E, et al. Shockwave-Induced Myoblast Exosome-Like Vesicles: Emerging Drivers of Muscle Regeneration. FASEB J. 2026;40:e72214. PMID: 42606782.
  41. Gao H, Luo XX, Fu Y, Chen Y, Ning SY, Han X, et al. Mechanistic interplay between extracellular vesicles and neutrophil extracellular traps: unveiling the "sterile inflammation" cascade in obesity-induced diabetes progression. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1865003. PMID: 42598105.
  42. Luo F, Yuan X, Zhou H, Wang Q, Chen C, Ling Y, et al. Extracellular vesicle-mediated immune crosstalk in rheumatoid arthritis synovium: mechanistic insights and translational challenges. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1891984. PMID: 42598067.
  43. Newman AG, Singh PB. HUSH, NEXT PROMPT: Epigenetics and the Nuclear RNA Exosome in Human Aging and Disease. Cells. 2026;15:1378. PMID: 42587787.
  44. Wang HR, Lv XH, Sun Y, Gu ZC, Lin M, Guan L, et al. Extracellular vesicle-mediated immune-metabolic crosstalk: research advances in inflammatory regulation and the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1884606. PMID: 42583072.
  45. Jung S, Yeo H, Li H, Kokane S, Reichenbach T, Gulati A, et al. Structure of NHE6 and its lipid-mediated interactions regulating endosomal pH. Nat Commun. 2026;17:8177. PMID: 42581050.
  46. Wang Y, Liu X, Nakielski P, Nekipelov K, Salviano-Silva A, Topuz A, et al. Shear-Activated von Willebrand Factor Captures Extracellular Vesicles to Promote Platelet Activation and Metastasis. J Extracell Vesicles. 2026;15:e70349. PMID: 42571987.
  47. Tufekci KU, Arioz BI, Cotuk A, Kiser C, Ozturk B, Yaras T, et al. IL-4-Primed Microglial Extracellular Vesicles Attenuate Rotenone-Induced Cell Death in SH-SY5Y Cells: A Contributory Role for miR-191-5p. ASN Neuro. 2026;18:2712448. PMID: 42566293.
  48. Wang J, Xu J, Cui Z, Wu J. Novel perspective on immune cell regulation in gastrointestinal inflammation: the role of extracellular vesicles and therapeutic prospects. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2026;251:11114. PMID: 42539526.
  49. Jayachandran J, Pathak S, Maizetova Z, Radhakrishnan A, Banerjee A, Duttaroy AK. An updated review on the role of extracellular vesicles in immune system modulation in breast cancer with special emphasis on immune checkpoint regulators. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1872143. PMID: 42534980.
  50. Wu X, Gong H, Zhang J, Yu L, Yan X, Pan W, et al. Exosomal delivery of METTL3 promotes M1 macrophage polarization by inducing miR-155-5p maturation via m6A modification. Ann Med. 2026;58:2708378. PMID: 42533620.
  51. Fan L, Zhao H, Cong M, Zhang M, Rouzi T, Xie B, et al. Single-cell profiling uncovers extracellular vesicle-associated malignant plasma cell subpopulations driving multiple myeloma progression. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1848792. PMID: 42529293.
  52. Leyfman Y, Ikkurthy N, Dohadwala TK, Coloma HS, Ghazal J, Joshi M, et al. Mechanistic Interplay Between Multiple Myeloma and Severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Therapeutic Promise of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles. Biomedicines. 2026;14:1617. PMID: 42512089.
  53. Hrkać A, Bulić L, Brlek P, Nikles S, Bokarica P, Madžar T, et al. Exosomes in Benign Urological Disorders: From Molecular Biology to Clinical Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:6441. PMID: 42511786.
  54. Lee M, Park K, Kim J, Hyun KA, Sathiyaseelan A, Park S. Microfluidic Platforms for Exosome Engineering: Scalable Therapeutics for Cancer Immunotherapy and Infectious Diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:6298. PMID: 42511642.
  55. Pucci M, Costanzo E, Marfia M, Seidita G, Fontana S, Corrado C, et al. Extracellular Vesicles as Master Regulators of Immune Modulation in Multiple Myeloma. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:6276. PMID: 42511618.
  56. Nabeta E, Wang A, Zhao J, Hao D. Engineering Biomimetic 3D Microenvironments for Extracellular Vesicle Programming Toward Clinical Translation. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:6121. PMID: 42511466.
  57. De Leo MG, Mayer A. CROP2, a Retriever-PROPPIN complex mediating protein export from endosomes to the plasma membrane in human cells. Elife. 2026;14:RP109403. PMID: 42495818.
  58. Vermeulen I, Parmentier Y, Barber J, François A, Chadli L, Provost N, et al. The New Spine of Access to the Brain's Secrets: Extracellular Vesicles from Cerebrospinal Fluid Liquid Biopsies in CNS Diseases and Blood-Brain Barrier Research. Mol Neurobiol. 2026;63:786. PMID: 42489808.
  59. Yang B, Yan H, Zhou Y, Li J, Liu J, Huang C, et al. Extracellular vesicle-mediated immunomodulation and targeted delivery: breakthroughs and challenges in rheumatoid arthritis therapy. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1813097. PMID: 42488627.
  60. Yan B, Cai S, Wang Y, Li Q, Guo W, Huang X, et al. Escherichia coli outer membrane vesicles: Bacterial virulence, antibiotic resistance, host interactions, and applications in biomedical platforms. Virulence. 2026;17:2707805. PMID: 42482474.
  61. Hu R, Ataullev Z, Lou L. Extracellular Vesicles in Acute Myeloid Leukemia: Opportunities and Obstacles for Therapeutic Advancement. J Biochem Mol Toxicol. 2026;40:e70999. PMID: 42478125.
  62. Song Y, Xie F, Liang X. Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes in Skin Wound Healing and Scar Prevention: Mechanisms, Comparison, and Clinical Prospects. Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2026;23:975-987. PMID: 42467369.
  63. Li J, Gao M, Feng J, Huo D, Hong R, Zhang F, et al. Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Improve Aging-Related Changes in Liver Lipid Metabolism by Enhancing Autophagy. Aging Cell. 2026;25:e70642. PMID: 42463991.
  64. Platonova N, Aiello G, Ronchetti D, Citro V, Asselta R, Casati L, et al. Protein Profile of Multiple Myeloma-Derived Extracellular Vesicles for the Discovery of Novel Myeloma-Related Biomarkers. Cancer Sci. 2026;117:2877-2890. PMID: 42460505.
  65. El Rayes S, Ababneh E, Nannuri V, Vaidya M, Sugaya K, Zhao J. The Multifaceted Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Triple Negative Breast Cancer. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:5976. PMID: 42450243.
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  67. Huang T, Huang Y, Zhou Y, Lu X, Yang L, Yu J, et al. From Gut to Fat: Intestinal Epithelial Exosomes Target PDGFRα+ Progenitors to Promote Lipogenesis and Counteract Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue Atrophy in Aging. Aging Cell. 2026;25:e70625. PMID: 42437849.
  68. Zhang L, Luo Y, Ma Q, Gao Y. Microscopic messengers: roles and prospects of extracellular vesicles in hepatitis B and C. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1833204. PMID: 42416055.
  69. Kim SJ, Kim JS, Moon MH, Jang JH, Hwang IS, Cha BH. Therapeutic Extracellular Vesicles from Synovial Fibroblast-Primed MSCs for Osteoarthritis Treatment. Adv Healthc Mater. 2026;15:e71406. PMID: 42410892.
  70. Liao Y, Liu Y, Yang R, Zhu Z, Wu J, Li D, et al. IL-7R-Enriched Extracellular Vesicles From the Thymus Drive Colitis via Promoting Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Formation. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2026;13:e20331. PMID: 42406421.
  71. Zhai D, Shi Y, Fan Y, Zheng S, Zhang M, Zhou S, et al. Tumor-derived PCSK9-enriched exosomes reprogram adipocytes to drive metabolic dysregulation and immune evasion in triple-negative breast cancer. Cell Death Dis. 2026;17:827. PMID: 42399609.
  72. Hussain Z, Montenegro C, Rovera C, Belghoula D, Tubiana SS, Finetti P, et al. Tumor cell-derived extracellular vesicles foster the immunosuppressive landscape of pancreatic cancer. J Clin Invest. 2026;136:e197733. PMID: 42390925.
  73. Marcos-Jubilar M, Fernandez-Arias C, Herrero-Carrasco C, Guruceaga E, Valencia K, Elizalde P, et al. An Immunothrombotic Extracellular Vesicle mRNA Profile Associated with Thrombosis in Lung Adenocarcinoma. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:5558. PMID: 42353272.
  74. Scrivo A, Bernardino L, Consiglio A. The Dual Role of Glial Extracellular Vesicles in Neurodegeneration: Insights from iPSC-Based Models. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:5182. PMID: 42352907.
  75. Branco H, Carreira J, Soure I, Xavier CPR, Rosário A, Amorim M, et al. A Minimally Invasive, Extracellular Vesicle-Based Approach for Monitoring Measurable Residual Disease in Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Proof-of-Concept Study. Cells. 2026;15:1068. PMID: 42346095.
  76. Balbi M, Rovere M, Cossu V, Reverberi D, Quarto E, Formica M, et al. iMSC-derived extracellular vesicles and their miRNA cargo influence inflammation and oxidative damage in an in vitro osteoarthritis model. Cell Death Dis. 2026;17:781. PMID: 42342653.
  77. Gim JA, Kwak K, Park Y, Kim BS, Kang KW. Potential of extracellular vesicle-derived microRNAs as a platform for biomarker discovery in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. PLoS One. 2026;21:e0352501. PMID: 42340965.
  78. Huang X, Li Q, Tao G, Gan X, Lu J, Krasny S, et al. Engineering Extracellular Vesicles for Anti-Aging Therapy: Mechanisms, Applications, and Perspectives. Aging Cell. 2026;25:e70607. PMID: 42337937.
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